It's to no one's surprise that in today's world, children are more digitally connected than ever, but this immersion in technology has sparked a growing concern about how screen time is shaping their development.
A combination of factors has led to this situation, but in this post, we are going to focus on specifically how screens have caused children to become addicted and how it has impacted their ability to learn and engage.
Hopefully by examining one way in which we've arrived at this point, we can begin to understand how to change course.
The Hooked Model: How Kids Became Addicted to Screens
Nir Eyal's book Hooked: How to Build Habit-Forming Products and the Hooked Model "guides designers through the loop they need to create if they want to build strong habits in their users" (The Anxious Generation: How the Great Rewiring of Childhood is Causing an Epidemic of Mental Illness, page 131).
Essentially, this model sheds light on how Big Tech companies create apps and games designed to keep users, including children, hooked or addicted.
Eyal’s "Hooked Model" follows a cycle: Trigger, Action, Variable Reward, and Investment.
Each step of this model taps into psychological triggers that encourage children to spend more time on screens. Children are drawn into apps through rewards like praise, points, or leveling up in a game, and they invest more time to gain those rewards, forming a habitual feedback loop.
Let's say a young girl is at home doing her homework with her iPhone sitting on her desk next to her books. The loop starts with an external trigger, such as a notification that someone commented on her post (step 1); this is the off-ramp inviting her to leave the path that she was on (doing her homework).
The notification pops up on her phone screen and automatically triggers a desire to perform an action (step 2) which is to open Instagram. That action then leads to a pleasurable event, but only sometimes (step 3): a variable reward. Maybe she'll find someone commenting something positive, but maybe not.
"This is a key discovery of behavioral psychology: it's best not to reward a behavior every time the animal does what you want. If you reward an animal on a variable-ratio schedule, you create the strongest and most persistent behavior" (The Anxious Generation, pages 131-132).
The first three steps are commonly known as classic behaviorism and operant conditioning that was coined by B.F. Skinner in the 1940s. What the Hooked Model adds for humans is the investment step. Nir Eyal's model shows us that humans are more invested when they have put a bit of themselves into the app so it therefore matters more to them. For instance, setting up your profile, adding a bio, and posting photos of yourself.
At this point, after investment, the trigger for the next round of behavior may become internal. As she continues doing her homework and studying, a thought pops up in her mind: "I wonder if anyone has liked or commented on my photo since I posted it 30 minutes ago."
"An attractive off-ramp appears in consciousness (step 1). She tries to resist temptation and stick with her homework, but the mere thought of a possible reward triggers the release of a bit of dopamine, which makes her want to go to Instagram immediately. She feels a craving. She goes (step 2) and finds that nobody liked or commented on her post. She feels disappointment, but her dopamine-primed brain still craves a reward, so she starts looking through her other posts, or her DMs, or anything that shows that she matters to someone else, or anything that provides easy entertainment, which she finds (step 3). She wanders down her feed, leaving comments for her friends along the way. Sure enough, a friend reciprocates by liking her last post. An hour later, she returns to her [homework], depleted, and less able to focus" (The Anxious Generation, pages 132-133).
This feedback loop is especially concerning because children’s brains are still developing. The more they engage with these habit-forming digital tools, like games and social media, the more ingrained their reliance on screens becomes.
Kids are quickly learning to associate screen time with instant gratification, which directly competes with the slower, more deliberate cognitive engagement required for reading physical books.
"The brain develops throughout childhood, with an acceleration of change during puberty. One of the main skills that adolescents are expected to develop as they advance through middle school and high school is 'executive function,' which refers to the child's growing ability to make plans and then do the things necessary to execute those plans. Executive function skills are slow to develop because they are based in large part in the frontal cortex, which is the last part of the brain to rewire during puberty. Skills essential for executive function include self-control, focus, and the ability to resist off-ramps. A phone-based childhood is likely to interfere with the development of executive function" (The Anxious Generation, page 129).
And as hard as it is for an adult to stay focused or committed to one mental road, it is much more difficult for an adolescent, who has an immature and still developing frontal cortex and therefore has a much more difficult time saying no to enticing off-ramps.
Note: Tech companies have purposely made their products addictive to children and adults alike. We know this as Sean Parker, one of Facebook's early leaders, admitted in a 2017 interview that the goal of Facebook's and Instagram's founders was to "create a social-validation feedback loop... exactly the kind of thing that a hacker like myself would come up with, because you're exploiting a vulnerability in human psychology."
The Impact of Screens on Reading and Comprehension
A former design ethicist at Google, Tristan Harris, created a PowerPoint presentation for the team at Google titled, "A Call to Minimize Distraction and Respect Users' Attention." In it, Harris noted that the products made by just three companies - Google, Apple, and Facebook, and mostly by white men - were shaping how most of humanity spends their limited attention. Harris notes that the design choices made by tech companies have resulted in a "tragedy of the commons that destroys our common silence and ability to think."
Essentially, we have faced a "global collapse of the amount of attention available for anything beyond screens," (The Anxious Generation, page 229).
And while screens certainly do have their benefits—like providing easy and quick access to information and learning tools—excessive screen time, particularly in young children, is having a detrimental effect on reading and comprehension skills.
Research shows that the brain processes information differently when reading on a screen compared to reading on paper. Digital reading often encourages skimming, which compromises deep comprehension and critical thinking. Kids, especially young ones, struggle to focus for long periods, and when they do read on screens, their attention is often fragmented by the constant incoming notifications and/or advertisements.
With constant exposure to screen-based entertainment, children can lose the ability to sustain attention needed for deep reading. This shift from physical books to screens changes the way their brains develop, making it harder for them to engage with more complex texts that require a higher level of focus.
And according to a 2016 study, even the mere presence of one's phone reduces available cognitive capacity. Researchers brought college students into a lab and randomly assigned them to three different test groups. 1) to leave their bag and phone out in the entry room of the lab, 2) keep their phone with them in their pocket or their bag, or 3) put their phone on their desk next to them.
They then had the students complete tasks that tested their fluid intelligence and working memory capacity, such as by solving math problems while also remembering a string of letters. The results showed that performance was best when phones were left outside in the entry room, the worst when phones were visible on the desk, and in-between for those who had their phones in their pocket.
The Rise of "iPad Babies" and Declining Reading Levels
The term "iPad babies" refers to toddlers and young children who have been exposed to screens from a very early age, often before the age of one. Many parents use iPads or smartphones to keep their children occupied; but this screen time is a double-edged sword. The American Academy of Pediatrics has warned about the consequences of too much screen time for young children, particularly in their developmental years.
Current research indicates that children who spend significant time on screens tend to have lower reading levels than their peers. These children often struggle to concentrate on non-digital tasks, like reading books or writing, because they have become accustomed to the fast-paced stimuli of digital media. The reading levels of iPad babies reflect the challenge of transitioning from screen-based interactions, which provide immediate gratification, to the slower, more effortful process of reading and comprehending written words.
Back in 2016, a professor at the University of Maryland College park, Lauren Singer Trakhman, studied how undergraduates' reading comprehension was impacted when they read articles on screens versus on paper. Interestingly, they could still grasp the big picture, but when it came to the smaller or little details, the students reading on screens struggled much more.
This ties back to what Anne Mangen, a literacy professor at the University of Stavanger in Norway calls the "shallowing hypothesis," which suggests that being exposed to fast-paced digital content trains our brains to process information quickly but without much depth. It’s not just about speed; scrolling through digital text makes it harder for us to retain information.
Think about it—when you read a physical book, your brain maps out where things are, like remembering that important quote on the top left corner of the page. Now imagine trying to map out something constantly shifting, like a webpage. It’s harder to keep track of what’s where because the text keeps moving. We lose those visual placeholders that help us remember details.
To make things even trickier, scrolling takes up more of our working memory. We can only hold about seven pieces of information at a time, and when we have to keep track of what we just read without any spatial cues, it’s like adding extra serving onto an already full plate.
And let’s not forget that staring at LED screens for too long can cause eye strain and fatigue, which only makes it that more difficult to remain focused.
The Shift to Screens and Its Consequences
Jonathan Haidt, the author of The Anxious Generation: How the Great Rewiring of Childhood is Causing an Epidemic of Mental Illness, refers to the shift as moving from a "play-based childhood" to a "phone-based childhood," which we started to experience in the early 2010s. He states that, "a play-based childhood is one in which kids spend the majority of their free time playing with friends in the real world [which is] embodied, synchronous, one-to-one or one-to-several, and in groups or communities where there is some cost to join or leave so people invest in their relationships" (The Anxious Generation, page 53).
So, then we can see where the problem arises when children start spending majority of their time on their phones and iPads, as they sit alone in their room watching YouTube videos or scrolling through TikTok or Instagram. These interactions are opposite of what we see in a play-based childhood, instead we see: disembodied, asynchronous, one-to-many, and done alone or in virtual groups that are easy to leave so they don't invest as much time or effort into their relationships.
As of recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has also helped to accelerate this trend as it forced schools to rapidly shift to virtual learning; and while it was a necessary adaptation, it only further increased children’s exposure to screens (and isolation). Virtual classrooms meant that children had to engage with their education through a screen for hours at a time. Though virtual learning offered flexibility, it lacked the interpersonal interaction and hands-on learning opportunities found in traditional classrooms that are imperative to cognitive development.
This shift also had an unintended side effect: many children became even more accustomed to screen-based activities, solidifying their dependence on technology and their isolation from friends. The reliance on screens for learning compounded the challenges that children already faced in terms of attention span, focus, and deep reading skills. Post-pandemic, many educators are reporting that reading levels have dropped, partly due to the increased amount of screen time and the lack of structured reading practice.
Haidt states that we might as well refer to phones and iPads as "experience blockers" for kids, as they reduce the kinds of experiences that are necessary for humans to evolve to become fully functioning adults. Haidt states, "it's as if we gave our infants iPads loaded with movies about [reading], but the movies were so engrossing that kids never [put them down] and put in the time or effort to practice [reading]" (The Anxious Generation, page 54).
How Can We Fix This?
Addressing the issue of screen addiction and its impact on reading and comprehension will require a multi-faceted approach involving parents, educators, and policymakers.
The American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry lists several things to consider for young children (ages 0 to 5):
Until 18 months of age, limit screen use to video chat (like FaceTime) along with an adult (for example, with a parent who is out of town)
Between 18 and 24 months, screen time should be limited to watching educational programming with a caregiver
For children 2 to 5, limit non-educational screen time to about one hour per weekday and three hours on the weekend days
For ages six and older, encourage healthy habits, and limit activities that include screens
Turn off all screens during family meals and outings
Avoid using screens as pacifiers, babysitters, or to stop tantrums
Turn off screens and remove them from the bedroom 30-60 minutes before bedtime
We would also recommend checking out the @ToddlersCanRead TikTok page, where there is a vast amount of resources (both free and paid) to help with reading and comprehension for children.
We would hope that Big Tech would do better by humanity, but as we live in a hyper-capitalistic society and corporate greed is a real thing, we therefore cannot rely on Big Tech to help us and so we must do the work ourselves. Because of this, we have provided additional resources and considerations below.
Here is a list of other things to consider for adolescents and teens:
Limit Screen Time: Parents can start by setting limits on non-educational screen time. Encouraging outdoor play, physical activities, and creative hands-on projects can help reduce reliance on screens while promoting other forms of learning.
Learn How to Use Parental Controls and Content Filters
Promote Deep Reading Practices: Introducing more print-based materials into children’s daily routines is essential. Teachers and parents should prioritize reading physical books and ensure that screen time is balanced with activities that promote focus and attention.
Redesign Educational Tools: If you are working on creating educational apps and digital learning platforms, please be more mindful of how they engage and addict children. Instead of relying on addictive techniques, these platforms can be designed to encourage deep learning, patience, and critical thinking. If you are working for a company that you feel is acting in an unethical manner, speak up and/or leave.
Come Together as Parents and Encourage Schools to Change Policies: When enough parents unite together in support of having "phone free schools," and encourage schools and districts to change their policies, we might be able to see change. (For instance, requiring phones to be locked away in the child's backpack while at school all day).
Rebalance Virtual and In-Person Learning: Post-pandemic, schools need to find a balance between digital and traditional forms of learning. Incorporating more in-person, hands-on educational activities will help children build better reading and comprehension skills without the distractions that come from being constantly on screens.
Empower Your Children & Educate Them on Mindful Tech Use: Parents and teachers alike need to educate children about mindful technology use. Talk to your children and educate them on how social media and video games work, and how it can hook them to become addicted. Teaching them to recognize when they are becoming too dependent on screens can empower them to self-regulate and give them the confidence to recognize their (excessive) usage as they grow older.
Center for Humane Technology: Check out the Youth Toolkit and other resources provided by the Center for Humane Technology (started by Tristan Harris, former design ethicist at Google).
The Anxious Generation Resources: Check out the resources provided by AnxiousGeneration.com which has research and advice for parents, schools, Gen Z, and others interested in this topic.
Conclusion
There's a reason why many tech executives themselves send their children to schools such as the Waldorf School of the Peninsula, where all digital devices including phones, tablets, and laptops, are prohibited.
There's a reason why Steve Jobs would not allow his children to have an iPhone or why Mark Zuckerberg does not allow his own children to have social media accounts.
They understand that your attention is your most valued asset.
Read that again.
The addiction to screens, fueled by habit-forming designs, has created a major challenge for young children in terms of reading and comprehension. As the world continues to digitize, it's vital that we remain aware of the unintended consequences this has on the younger generations.
By taking proactive steps, whether at home or in the classroom, we can begin to reverse the trend and help children reconnect with the joy of deep reading and learning. Only through conscious effort can we ensure that the next generation grows up with a balanced relationship between technology and literacy.
As Haidt states, "if schools take these steps, in concert with parents taking related steps at home and governments changing laws to support those efforts," then we might be able to reverse the damage that Big Tech and screens have caused.
Sources:
The Anxious Generation: How the Great Rewiring of Childhood is Causing an Epidemic of Mental Illness by Jonathan Haidt
Hooked: How to Build Habit-Forming Products by Nir Eyal
Brain Drain: The Mere Presence of One’s Own Smartphone Reduces Available Cognitive Capacity
Scores Decline Again For 13-Year-Old Students in Reading and Mathematics
Overcoming Screen Inferiority in Learning and Calibration
Reading Across Mediums: Effects of Reading Digital and Print Texts on Comprehension and Calibration
by: Adriana Leos
Chief Creative Officer
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